{"it":{"id":"GIZ-G3","kind":"site","sub":"Egypt and Nubia","name":"Pyramid of Menkaure (G3)","place":"Egypt","lat":29.973,"lon":31.128,"date":"c. 2500 BCE","mat":"Limestone; Aswan granite lower casing","facts":[{"a":"Base side N","v":"not measured (NW end could not be reached); azimuth +16′48″","r":21},{"a":"Base side E (intended base one mean course below the 1st joint)","v":"105.390","u":"m","r":21},{"a":"Base side S (intended base one mean course below the 1st joint)","v":"105.608","u":"m","r":21},{"a":"Base side W (intended base one mean course below the 1st joint)","v":"105.509","u":"m","r":21},{"a":"Base mean","v":"105.501","u":"m","r":21},{"a":"Base level adopted","v":"1.024","u":"m","r":21},{"a":"Face angle data","v":"7 finished granite in situ 50°57′ ± 28″; 1st & 4th courses SSW 50°42′ ± 7″; 6 shifted granite blocks 51°00′ ± 9″; 9 limestone casing pieces 51°58′ ± 15″","r":21},{"a":"Face angle adopted","v":"51°0′ ± 10′ (measured); 51°10′30″ ± 1′20″ (from granite courses)","r":21}],"nfacts":165,"tags":["Egypt","Pyramids"],"sum":"The smallest of the three Giza pyramids is the one most out of line. Petrie measured Menkaure's north side at 16′48″ off true north, and about 14′ averaged over the casing: roughly a quarter of a degree, about four times the error of Khufu's (3′43″ in his survey).\n\nMenkaure's pyramid dates to around 2500 BCE, the last of the three great Giza pyramids. Its lower courses were cased in red Aswan granite rather than white limestone and the finish of that granite is one of the details measured on this page.","why":"The smallest Giza pyramid, left unfinished and turned the opposite way from its neighbours.","src":[257],"nsrc":16,"yt":"What do you think explains the slip?","rel":["GIZ-G1","GIZ-G2"],"hook":"Menkaure's pyramid was left with its granite faces rough. It is also turned the opposite way from Khufu's."},"S":{"21":["Petrie 1883, Ch.10","http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html"],"257":["Wikipedia: Pyramid of Menkaure","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure"]},"rec":{"id":"GIZ-G3","alias":[],"ms":[{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Base side N","v":"not measured (NW end could not be reached); azimuth +16′48″","u":"as published","o":"not measured (NW end could not be reached); azimuth +16′48″","unc":"","by":"Petrie 1883","yr":"1883","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","pg":"Petrie §80 p.111","url":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0264"},{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Base side E (intended base one mean course below the 1st joint)","v":"105.390","u":"m","o":"4149.2 in; azimuth +12′23″","unc":"","by":"Petrie 1883","yr":"1883","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","pg":"Petrie §80 p.111","url":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0265"},{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Base side S (intended base one mean course below the 1st joint)","v":"105.608","u":"m","o":"4157.8 in; azimuth +12′57″","unc":"","by":"Petrie 1883","yr":"1883","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","pg":"Petrie §80 p.111","url":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0266"},{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Base side W (intended base one mean course below the 1st joint)","v":"105.509","u":"m","o":"4153.9 in; azimuth not measured","unc":"","by":"Petrie 1883","yr":"1883","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","pg":"Petrie §80 p.111","url":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0267"},{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Base mean","v":"105.501","u":"m","o":"4153.6 in (mean diff 3.0); mean azimuth +14′3″ (mean diff 1′50″)","unc":"","by":"Petrie 1883","yr":"1883","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","pg":"Petrie §80","url":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0268"},{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Base level adopted","v":"1.024","u":"m","o":"one mean granite course (40.3 ± 1.5 in) below the 1st joint","unc":"± 1.5 in","by":"Petrie 1883","yr":"1883","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","pg":"Petrie §79 p.111","url":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0269"},{"f":"4.1 Exterior","a":"Face angle data","v":"7 finished granite in situ 50°57′ ± 28″; 1st & 4th courses SSW 50°42′ ± 7″; 6 shifted granite blocks 51°00′ ± 9″; 9 limestone casing pieces 51°58′ ± 15″","u":"as published","o":"7 finished granite in situ 50°57′ ± 28″; 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Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"Appendix, dimension tables (IA OCR; printed page not confirmed)","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"conflict:Menkaure-face-angle","id":"M0415"},{"f":"Exterior/passages (Vyse/Perring 1837)","a":"Top platform (Vyse/Perring)","v":"about 16 ft","u":"as published","o":"about 16 ft","unc":"","by":"Vyse 1840 vol.2","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"Appendix, dimension tables (IA OCR; printed page not confirmed)","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0416"},{"f":"Exterior/passages (Vyse/Perring 1837)","a":"Present height of granite casing, W side","v":"36 ft 9 in","u":"as published","o":"36 ft 9 in","unc":"","by":"Vyse 1840 vol.2","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"Appendix, dimension tables (IA OCR; printed page not confirmed)","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0417"},{"f":"Exterior/passages (Vyse/Perring 1837)","a":"Present height of granite casing, N side","v":"25 ft 10 in","u":"as published","o":"25 ft 10 in","unc":"","by":"Vyse 1840 vol.2","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"Appendix, dimension tables (IA OCR; printed page not confirmed)","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0418"},{"f":"Exterior (Vyse/Perring)","a":"Base and height figures","v":"354 6 / 203 / 261 (column-misaligned)","u":"ft in","o":"","unc":"","by":"Vyse 1840 vol.2","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"Appendix, dimension tables (IA OCR; printed page not confirmed)","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"source not confirmed in Oct-13 set ([unverified])","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"OCR columns misaligned; page image not inspected","id":"M0420"},{"f":"Sarcophagus","a":"Material / state","v":"basalt; empty when found","u":"—","o":"","unc":"","by":"Vyse 1840 vol.2","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"p.84","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0421"},{"f":"Sarcophagus","a":"Weight","v":"nearly three tons (estimate)","u":"long ton","o":"","unc":"","by":"Vyse 1840 vol.2","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","pg":"p.84","url":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"ESTIMATE, not weighed; sarcophagus lost at sea 1838 (AEBC note)","id":"M0422"},{"f":"Sarcophagus","a":"L × W × H","v":"2.43 × 0.94 × 0.88","u":"m","o":"","unc":"","by":"AEBC database","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Ancient Egyptian Burial Containers database (Charles Univ.), record 233_Giz_S, citing Perring 1840 p.9 pl.V; Vyse 1840 pp.81-85","pg":"record 233_Giz_S","url":"https://aebc.ff.cuni.cz/database/233_giz_s/","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"secondary DB; Perring 1840 pl.V primary not opened","id":"M0423"},{"f":"Sarcophagus","a":"Material / decoration (AEBC)","v":"basalt/greywacke; palace façade; uninscribed","u":"—","o":"","unc":"","by":"AEBC database","yr":"1840","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Ancient Egyptian Burial Containers database (Charles Univ.), record 233_Giz_S, citing Perring 1840 p.9 pl.V; Vyse 1840 pp.81-85","pg":"record 233_Giz_S","url":"https://aebc.ff.cuni.cz/database/233_giz_s/","b":"S","bb":"one surveyor; value read from opened source","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M0424"},{"f":"Menkaure's pyramid had an original height of","a":"height","v":"65.5","u":"m","o":"Menkaure's pyramid had an original height of 65.5 m, and was the smallest of the three major pyramids at the Giza Necropolis.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1539"},{"f":"It now stands at","a":"base length/width","v":"61","u":"m","o":"It now stands at 61 m tall with a base of 108.5 m.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1540"},{"f":"at 61 m tall with a base of","a":"base length/width","v":"108.5","u":"m","o":"It now stands at 61 m tall with a base of 108.5 m.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1541"},{"f":"casing rising to a height of more than","a":"height","v":"20","u":"m","o":"The lowest sixteen courses of the casing, rising to a height of more than 20 m, were of red granite from Aswan; above this the casing was of fine limestone up to the pyramidion, which has disappeared and whose material (limestone or granite) is unknown.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1542"},{"f":"thickness of the casing's fifth course sitting about","a":"dimension (unspecified)","v":"4.2","u":"meters","o":"The entrance to the pyramid is located in the center of its northern face in the thickness of the casing's fifth course, sitting about 4.2 meters above the average base of the pyramid and almost directly below the great breach. it was finally located in 1837 by Howard Vyse.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1543"},{"f":"large chamber more than six metres long and","a":"width","v":"2.6","u":"metres","o":"A third arrangement was discovered beneath the rectangular room: a corridor cut into its floor descends to a large chamber, more than six metres long and 2.6 metres wide.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1544"},{"f":"a room set at an angle of about","a":"orientation (deg)","v":"25","u":"°","o":"Shortly before the granite burial chamber, a doorway in the northern wall of the access corridor leads by a stairway of seven steps to a room set at an angle of about 25° to the north, off which open six storerooms cut into the rock, four on the east side and two on the north; their use has been interpreted as chambers for the canopic jars and the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1545"},{"f":"site chronology","a":"dating (as stated)","v":"The coffin was radiocarbon-dated to 1212–846 BC, from the late New Kingdom to the Third Intermediate Per","u":"","o":"The coffin was radiocarbon-dated to 1212–846 BC, from the late New Kingdom to the Third Intermediate Period, showing that it was fabricated long after the king's death, presumably in the course of a restoration of the plundered tomb.","unc":"","by":"per cited source","yr":"","m":"documentary: auto-extracted sentence","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary)","t":"INTERPRETATION","n":"","id":"M1546"},{"f":"of the mortuary temple weighed as much as","a":"mass","v":"220","u":"tons","o":"Reisner estimated that some of the blocks of local stone in the walls of the mortuary temple weighed as much as 220 tons, while the heaviest granite ashlars imported from Aswan weighed more than 30 tons.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1547"},{"f":"granite ashlars imported from Aswan weighed more than","a":"mass","v":"30","u":"tons","o":"Reisner estimated that some of the blocks of local stone in the walls of the mortuary temple weighed as much as 220 tons, while the heaviest granite ashlars imported from Aswan weighed more than 30 tons.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1548"},{"f":"pyramid with a base of 84 cubits about","a":"base length/width","v":"44","u":"m","o":"The easternmost (G3-a) is the largest, most prominent and most elaborate of the three, and the only one with the shape of a true pyramid, with a base of 84 cubits (about 44 m), a slope of 52°15′ and an original height of about 28.4 m; it still stands some 25.4 m high.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1549"},{"f":"52 15 and an original height of about","a":"height","v":"28.4","u":"m","o":"The easternmost (G3-a) is the largest, most prominent and most elaborate of the three, and the only one with the shape of a true pyramid, with a base of 84 cubits (about 44 m), a slope of 52°15′ and an original height of about 28.4 m; it still stands some 25.4 m high.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1550"},{"f":"about 28 4 m it still stands some","a":"height","v":"25.4","u":"m","o":"The easternmost (G3-a) is the largest, most prominent and most elaborate of the three, and the only one with the shape of a true pyramid, with a base of 84 cubits (about 44 m), a slope of 52°15′ and an original height of about 28.4 m; it still stands some 25.4 m high.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1378502650 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M1551"},{"f":"pyramid mortar","a":"lab date material (radiocarbon)","v":"charcoal, reed, wood from gypsum mortar","u":"text","o":"","unc":"","by":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","yr":"1999","m":"derived","c":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","pg":"","url":"https://archive.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"1984 + 1995 sampling campaigns","id":"M2919"},{"f":"pyramid samples","a":"radiocarbon offset vs historical (1995)","v":"100-200 years older","u":"yr","o":"","unc":"","by":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","yr":"1999","m":"derived","c":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","pg":"","url":"https://archive.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"attributed to old-wood effect (INTERPRETATION)","id":"M2920"},{"f":"pyramid samples","a":"radiocarbon offset vs historical (1984, Dyn 3-5 avg)","v":"374 years older","u":"yr","o":"","unc":"","by":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","yr":"1999","m":"derived","c":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","pg":"","url":"https://archive.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"","id":"M2921"},{"f":"charcoal samples","a":"radiocarbon age range","v":"3735-4420","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas et al. 1987 via IntChron","yr":"1987","m":"derived","c":"Haas et al. 1987 via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"uncalibrated","id":"M2924"},{"f":"Heit el-Ghurab samples","a":"radiocarbon match to historical (3 of 8)","v":"2532-2504 BC hits; 5 others 100-350 yr older","u":"text","o":"","unc":"","by":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","yr":"1999","m":"derived","c":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","pg":"","url":"https://archive.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"workers settlement S of Sphinx","id":"M2925"},{"f":"casing","a":"lowest courses of Aswan red granite","v":"16","u":"count","o":"","unc":"","by":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","yr":"","m":"as stated","c":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"rising >20 m","id":"M2935"},{"f":"casing","a":"granite casing height","v":">20","u":"m","o":"","unc":"","by":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","yr":"","m":"as stated","c":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2936"},{"f":"pyramid","a":"construction phases","v":"first conceived stepped (steps of 7-8 courses, 3 visible), converted to true pyramid","u":"text","o":"","unc":"","by":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","yr":"","m":"as stated","c":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"INTERPRETATION of masonry evidence","id":"M2937"},{"f":"valley temple","a":"construction state at death","v":"barely begun: limestone foundation + first courses","u":"text","o":"","unc":"","by":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","yr":"","m":"as stated","c":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2938"},{"f":"burial apartments","a":"portcullises (granite)","v":"3","u":"count","o":"","unc":"","by":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","yr":"","m":"as stated","c":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"sliding arrangement","id":"M2939"},{"f":"burial chamber","a":"artifacts found","v":"basalt sarcophagus found 1837 by Vyse & Perring (lost at sea 1838)","u":"text","o":"","unc":"","by":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","yr":"","m":"as stated","c":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2940"},{"f":"pyramid","a":"excavation history","v":"Caviglia blasted lowest courses; 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d13C -22; context: Pyramid of Menkaure.  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d13C -27; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2988 ±97 (CE-neg)","id":"M3086"},{"f":"sample ETH-13852","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4489±54","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -23.5; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -3191 ±103 (CE-neg)","id":"M3087"},{"f":"sample ETH-13853","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4074±47","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -25.2; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2646 ±107 (CE-neg)","id":"M3088"},{"f":"sample ETH-13854","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4236±53","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -22; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2807 ±84 (CE-neg)","id":"M3089"},{"f":"sample ETH-13855","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3917±48","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -28; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2393 ±76 (CE-neg)","id":"M3090"},{"f":"sample ETH-13857","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3954±64","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.5; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2447 ±105 (CE-neg)","id":"M3091"},{"f":"sample ETH-13859","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3803±63","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -27.6; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2249 ±105 (CE-neg)","id":"M3092"},{"f":"sample ETH-13861","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3833±62","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.7; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2291 ±100 (CE-neg)","id":"M3093"},{"f":"sample ETH-13862","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3939±55","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -27.1; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2423 ±88 (CE-neg)","id":"M3094"},{"f":"sample ETH-13863","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3994±54","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.5; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2517 ±90 (CE-neg)","id":"M3095"},{"f":"sample ETH-13864","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4226±54","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.4; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2794 ±83 (CE-neg)","id":"M3096"},{"f":"sample ETH-13865","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4060±54","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.6; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2627 ±110 (CE-neg)","id":"M3097"},{"f":"sample ETH-13867","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4082±55","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2662 ±110 (CE-neg)","id":"M3098"},{"f":"sample ETH-13868","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4319±61","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -25.1; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2966 ±97 (CE-neg)","id":"M3099"},{"f":"sample ETH-13869","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4115±53","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -25.1; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2703 ±100 (CE-neg)","id":"M3100"},{"f":"sample ETH-13871","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4163±56","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -23.4; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2742 ±87 (CE-neg)","id":"M3101"},{"f":"sample ETH-13910","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4062±49","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.7; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2626 ±107 (CE-neg)","id":"M3102"},{"f":"sample ETH-13911","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4186±59","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -25.5; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2757 ±86 (CE-neg)","id":"M3103"},{"f":"sample ETH-13914","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4445±67","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -23.4; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -3139 ±125 (CE-neg)","id":"M3104"},{"f":"sample ETH-13915","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4188±59","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -24.4; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2758 ±86 (CE-neg)","id":"M3105"},{"f":"sample ETH-13918","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4257±60","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -24.5; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2841 ±100 (CE-neg)","id":"M3106"},{"f":"sample ETH-13919","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4122±51","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.6; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2711 ±97 (CE-neg)","id":"M3107"},{"f":"sample ETH-4232","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4145±105","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -25; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2712 ±137 (CE-neg)","id":"M3108"},{"f":"sample ETH-4233","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4245±95","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -28.9; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2830 ±151 (CE-neg)","id":"M3109"},{"f":"sample ETH-4234","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4180±90","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -29.1; context: Pyramid of Menkaure; IntChron cal mean -2744 ±119 (CE-neg)","id":"M3110"},{"f":"sample SMU-1352","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3735±59","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"soil; d13C -21.9; context: Pyramid of Menkaure.  Southeast corner,; IntChron cal mean -2141 ±94 (CE-neg)","id":"M3111"},{"f":"sample SMU-1370","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4048±48","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -25.9; context: Pyramid of Menkaure.  Southeast corner,; IntChron cal mean -2599 ±101 (CE-neg)","id":"M3112"},{"f":"sample SMU-1414","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3768±51","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"soil; d13C -20.9; context: Pyramid of Menkaure.  Southeast corner,; IntChron cal mean -2189 ±90 (CE-neg)","id":"M3113"},{"f":"sample SMU-1415","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"4418±250","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"charcoal; d13C -26.1; context: Pyramid of Menkaure.  Southeast corner,; IntChron cal mean -3089 ±326 (CE-neg)","id":"M3114"},{"f":"sample SMU-1419","a":"radiocarbon age (14C BP ± 1σ)","v":"3685±60","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","yr":"2001","m":"derived","c":"Haas 1987 / Bonani et al. 2001 (Radiocarbon 43:1297) via IntChron","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"soil; d13C -21.9; context: Pyramid of Menkaure.  Southeast corner,; IntChron cal mean -2073 ±88 (CE-neg)","id":"M3115"},{"f":"all samples","a":"radiocarbon summary (n, min-max, median BP)","v":"n=34; 1500-4489; median 4145","u":"BP","o":"","unc":"","by":"computed from IntChron table","yr":"2026","m":"derived","c":"computed from IntChron table","pg":"","url":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch","b":"S","bb":"","t":"LAB_RESULT","n":"Menkaure 1500 BP sample is an outlier (intrusive?)","id":"M3117"},{"f":"base perimeter","a":"elevation (DEM SRTM 30 m, base-perimeter median)","v":"72.5","u":"m","o":"","unc":"","by":"NASA SRTM via OpenTopoData","yr":"2026","m":"as stated","c":"NASA SRTM via OpenTopoData","pg":"","url":"https://api.opentopodata.org/v1/srtm30m","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"median of 8 points ~15 m outside base (N,S,E,W mids; NE,NW,SE,SW corners); replaces wave13 body-point value; samples 72,70,77,74,72,75,73,70; 30 m DEM still mixes structure/debris on sloping plateau","id":"M3203"},{"f":"base perimeter","a":"elevation (DEM ASTER 30 m, base-perimeter median)","v":"74.0","u":"m","o":"","unc":"","by":"NASA/METI ASTER GDEM via OpenTopoData","yr":"2026","m":"as stated","c":"NASA/METI ASTER GDEM via OpenTopoData","pg":"","url":"https://api.opentopodata.org/v1/aster30m","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"median of 8 points ~15 m outside base (N,S,E,W mids; NE,NW,SE,SW corners); replaces wave13 body-point value; samples 75,72,76,73,72,75,69,80; 30 m DEM still mixes structure/debris on sloping plateau","id":"M3204"},{"f":"plateau","a":"groundwater table elevation (GPR+resistivity)","v":"45-58 (S of Menkaure)","u":"m asl","o":"","unc":"","by":"Shallow geophysics, Giza groundwater (Geosci. Instrum. discussion)","yr":"2017","m":"as stated","c":"Shallow geophysics, Giza groundwater (Geosci. Instrum. discussion)","pg":"","url":"https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-2017-48","b":"S","bb":"","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M3247"},{"f":"plateau","a":"magnetometry survey (overview)","v":"magnetic method applied around Khafre/Sphinx; values not available in abstract","u":"text","o":"","unc":"","by":"Geophysical research in the Pyramids area (De Gruyter)","yr":"2022","m":"derived","c":"Geophysical research in the Pyramids area (De Gruyter)","pg":"","url":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110761665-023","b":"S","bb":"","t":"INTERPRETATION","n":"no numeric nT values reached; G1/G3 not covered by abstract","id":"M3250"}],"lab":[{"k":"Materials","mat":"site material (as stated in article)","m":"documentary mention (Wikipedia, auto-extracted)","v":"It was constructed of limestone and Aswan granite.","by":"no inline ref in article","b":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650"},{"k":"Materials","mat":"site material (as stated in article)","m":"documentary mention (Wikipedia, auto-extracted)","v":"It was constructed of limestone and Aswan granite.","by":"no inline ref in article","b":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650"},{"k":"Materials","mat":"site material (as stated in article)","m":"documentary mention (Wikipedia, auto-extracted)","v":"In 1837, Howard Vyse and John Shae Perring discovered the basalt sarcophagus of Menkaure in the granite burial chamber, displaced from its original position against the west wall.","by":"no inline ref in article","b":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650"},{"k":"Materials","mat":"site material (as stated in article)","m":"documentary mention (Wikipedia, auto-extracted)","v":"In each, the king is accompanied by the goddess Hathor, shown standing or seated, and by a third divinity personifying one of the nomes of the country; the four slate triads found intact stood in the southern magazine corridor, two against the east wall facing south and two against the west wall facing north.","by":"no inline ref in article","b":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650"}],"eng":[{"cl":"slope_angle","a":"Face angle data","v":"7 finished granite in situ 50°57′ ± 28″; 1st & 4th courses SSW 50°42′ ± 7″; 6 shifted granite blocks 51°00′ ± 9″; 9 limestone casing pieces 51°58′ ± 15″","u":"as published","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","cr":""},{"cl":"slope_angle","a":"Face angle adopted","v":"51°0′ ± 10′ (measured); 51°10′30″ ± 1′20″ (from granite courses)","u":"as published","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"S","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side N — Petrie 1883","v":"+16′48″","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side N — Nell & Ruggles course mean (Table 5c)","v":"+0°20′","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Nell, E. & Ruggles, C. 2014. The orientations of the Giza pyramids and associated structures. JHA (arXiv:1302.5622) https://arxiv.org/pdf/1302.5622","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side N — Dash JAEA 2017 (citing Petrie p.111), arc-min","v":"16.8","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side E — Petrie 1883","v":"+12′23″","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side E — Nell & Ruggles course mean (Table 5c)","v":"+0°12′","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Nell, E. & Ruggles, C. 2014. The orientations of the Giza pyramids and associated structures. JHA (arXiv:1302.5622) https://arxiv.org/pdf/1302.5622","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side E — Dash JAEA 2017 (citing Petrie p.111), arc-min","v":"12.4","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side S — Petrie 1883","v":"+12′57″","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side S — Nell & Ruggles course mean (Table 5c)","v":"+0°32′","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Nell, E. & Ruggles, C. 2014. The orientations of the Giza pyramids and associated structures. JHA (arXiv:1302.5622) https://arxiv.org/pdf/1302.5622","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side S — Dash JAEA 2017 (citing Petrie p.111), arc-min","v":"13.0","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side W — Nell & Ruggles course mean (Table 5c)","v":"+0°25′","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Nell, E. & Ruggles, C. 2014. The orientations of the Giza pyramids and associated structures. JHA (arXiv:1302.5622) https://arxiv.org/pdf/1302.5622","b":"S","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side Mean — Petrie 1883","v":"+14′3″","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side Mean — Nell & Ruggles course mean (Table 5c)","v":"+0°22′ (best estimate, courses 4–11)","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Nell, E. & Ruggles, C. 2014. The orientations of the Giza pyramids and associated structures. JHA (arXiv:1302.5622) https://arxiv.org/pdf/1302.5622","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"orientation_deviation_from_true_north","a":"Azimuth deviation side Mean — Dash JAEA 2017 (citing Petrie p.111), arc-min","v":"14.1","u":"arc (as published)","m":"as published (see citation)","c":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10 http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html","b":"V","cr":""},{"cl":"slope_angle","a":"Descending passage slope (present entrance)","v":"[unverified]","u":"as published","m":"as published (see citation)","c":" —","b":"S","cr":""},{"cl":"plan_geometry","a":"Plan shape","v":"square","u":"—","m":"survey","c":"Petrie 1883 / Dash 2015 (imported)","b":"V","cr":""}],"ori":[],"gaps":[{"a":"largest_block","r":"not found in free sources reached"},{"a":"wall_batter","r":"no published batter survey in free sources"},{"a":"metals_clamps","r":"no metal/clamp evidence reported in sources opened"}],"dat":[],"aa":[],"ac":[],"me":[],"ci":[],"cq":[],"sd":[],"sub":[],"site":{"age":"c. 2500 BCE","dm":"King-list + radiocarbon (Bonani 2001)","lab":"mentions lab dating of associated material (not the stone itself)","weak":"date applies to the sampled organic/associated material, not the stone; association with construction is assumed","unesco":"","dens":"DENSE"},"co":{"lat":"29.9725","lon":"31.1281","src":"Wikidata P625 only + curated wave0 value agrees","agree":"agree","b":"V","note":"two independent sources agree; max delta 0.0002 deg (~0.02 km)","osm":"https://www.openstreetmap.org/way/4420398"},"src":[{"id":"S0004","t":"Petrie 1883, Ch.10","u":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html"},{"id":"S0648","t":"Klemm, R. & Klemm, D.D. 2010. The Stones of the Pyramids","u":"https://gizamedia.rc.fas.harvard.edu/documents/klemm-klemm_stones_gizeh.pdf"},{"id":"S0771","t":"","u":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-020-0356-9"},{"id":null,"t":"—","u":"—"},{"id":"S0030","t":"Nell, E. & Ruggles, C. 2014. The orientations of the Giza pyramids and associated structures. JHA (arXiv:1302.5622)","u":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1302.5622"},{"id":"S0005","t":"Petrie 1883, Ch.11","u":"http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c11.html"},{"id":"S0024","t":"Vyse, H. 1840. Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. 2 (incl. Appendix with Perring's dimensions). London: Fraser","u":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarri00vysegoog"},{"id":"S0012","t":"Ancient Egyptian Burial Containers database (Charles Univ.), record 233_Giz_S, citing Perring 1840 p.9 pl.V; Vyse 1840 pp.81-85","u":"https://aebc.ff.cuni.cz/database/233_giz_s/"},{"id":"S0373","t":"no inline ref in article","u":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramid_of_Menkaure&oldid=1378502650"},{"id":null,"t":"Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project","u":"https://archive.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html"},{"id":null,"t":"Haas et al. 1987 via IntChron","u":"https://intchron.org/ref/haas1987rch"},{"id":"S0589","t":"Wikipedia (Pyramid of Menkaure)","u":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure"},{"id":null,"t":"NASA SRTM via OpenTopoData","u":"https://api.opentopodata.org/v1/srtm30m"},{"id":null,"t":"NASA/METI ASTER GDEM via OpenTopoData","u":"https://api.opentopodata.org/v1/aster30m"},{"id":null,"t":"Shallow geophysics, Giza groundwater (Geosci. Instrum. discussion)","u":"https://doi.org/10.5194/gi-2017-48"},{"id":null,"t":"Geophysical research in the Pyramids area (De Gruyter)","u":"https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110761665-023"},{"id":"VGIZ-G3-17","t":"Petrie 1883, The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh (Internet Archive text)","u":"https://archive.org/download/cu31924012038927/cu31924012038927_djvu.txt"},{"id":null,"t":"R. W. Howard Vyse, Operations Carried On at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837, vol. II (London: J. Fraser, 1840), pp. 71–94, incl. H. Raven’s letter and Burckhardt’s translation of Edrisi. Internet Archive (UCLA).","u":"https://archive.org/details/operationscarrie02howa"},{"id":null,"t":"W. M. Flinders Petrie, The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh (London: Field & Tuer, 1883), sections 89, 116. Internet Archive.","u":"https://archive.org/details/pyramidsandtemp00petrgoog"},{"id":null,"t":"Herodotus, Histories 2.129–135, trans. G. C. Macaulay (1890). Project Gutenberg.","u":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2707"},{"id":null,"t":"Strabo, Geography 17.1.33, trans. H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer (1857), vol. 3. Project Gutenberg.","u":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44886"},{"id":null,"t":"UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Memphis and its Necropolis – the Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur (site 86), description.","u":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/86/"},{"id":null,"t":"G. B. Belzoni, Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids, Temples, Tombs, and Excavations, in Egypt and Nubia (London: John Murray, 1820), pp. 435–436. Internet Archive (Getty).","u":"https://archive.org/details/recentdiscovpyra00belz"}],"sum":"On 12 October 1838 a merchant ship sailed from Leghorn, the Italian port now called Livorno, and was never heard of again. Wreckage later turned up near Cartagena on the coast of Spain, and the ship was believed lost there. In her hold, crated for the British Museum, was the stone coffin of a king who had ruled Egypt more than four thousand years before. It had been hauled out of the smallest of the three great pyramids at Giza the year before, and it is still somewhere on the floor of the Mediterranean.\n\nThat pyramid belongs to Menkaure, whom Herodotus called Mykerinos, a Fourth Dynasty king who followed Khafre. It dates to around 2500 BC; a 2020 study in the journal Heritage Science puts its building around 2490 BC. It stands a little apart from the other two, on higher ground, and by any measure it is the junior partner. Flinders Petrie, who surveyed Giza from 1880 to 1882, measured its base at about 105.5 metres a side and its original height at about 66 metres, the height of a twenty-storey building. It holds only about a tenth of the mass of Khufu's pyramid. Its faces rose at about 51 degrees.\n\nWhat it lacked in size it made up in material. The lowest courses, to a height of about 15 to 16 metres, were cased not in white limestone but in red granite from Aswan, hundreds of kilometres up the Nile, with fine Tura limestone above. Herodotus wrote that it was built of \"Ethiopian stone up to half the height,\" and Strabo, writing around the start of the Common Era, said the stone came \"from the mountains of Ethiopia,\" was hard to work, and made the pyramid \"much less than the two others, but constructed at much greater expense.\" Casing a pyramid in granite was a statement as much as a structure.\n\nLook closely at that granite and the story of the building changes. Around the entrance it has been dressed down almost to a final smooth surface. Everywhere else on the lower casing it was left rough, the outer faces bulging and undressed, while the joint faces between blocks were cut true with a fine, polished edge line. Petrie saw what that meant. The blocks were set rough, to be dressed down after they were in place, and the work stopped. There was no finished pavement either; the granite rests on rough limestone. Petrie tied the unfinished stone and the missing pavement to the king's early death, and he noted that Diodorus Siculus wrote that Menkaure died before the pyramid was finished.\n\nHerodotus left a gentler legend. Mykerinos, he said, reopened the temples his father had closed and judged his people fairly. An oracle then gave him only six years to live, and he lit lamps and feasted through the nights to make them twelve. It reads as fable, but it shows how Greek visitors saw him: the kind king of the three, set against the hard memory of the two before him. In the economy of reputation, softness can be a strategy too.\n\nIn 1837 Colonel Howard Vyse's team forced their way into the pyramid. They found the entrance thirteen feet above the base, set in the granite casing, with no trace of any inscription around it. Vyse believed they were the first inside, by an entrance that had \"eluded the researches of all explorers.\" In the lowest chamber lay the coffin, of basalt, with a fine polish, carved in panels, and \"entirely empty.\" It showed signs of having been sawn, perhaps with something like emery powder, which Vyse thought worth noting since sawing marble came late to Rome. In an upper chamber his men found the lid of a wooden coffin inscribed with Menkaure's name, and with it ribs, vertebrae and leg bones wrapped in coarse woollen cloth. The man who found them, Mr Raven, said it looked as if the coffin \"had been brought to that spot, and there unpacked.\"\n\nThen Vyse found a translation of the medieval geographer Edrisi, who reported that the pyramid had been opened only \"a few years\" before his own time. Treasure hunters, his informant said, worked \"with axes for six months,\" and in a \"blue long vessel\" they found \"the decayed rotten remains of a man.\" So someone had been in long before Vyse, and the body was not where it had been laid.\n\nThe mainstream case on authorship is firm. The inner plan had clearly been changed, and Manetho tied the pyramid to a much later queen. Greeks claimed the courtesan Rhodopis had built it, a story Herodotus rejected because she lived far later; Strabo repeats a version in which an eagle drops her sandal in a king's lap and he marries her. Petrie weighed the doubts and dismissed them. The change of plan, he showed, happened during building, not in a later reign. The panelled ornament, the absence of the carved texts found in Sixth Dynasty pyramids and the granite casing all fit the Fourth Dynasty. And the inscribed coffin lid meant, for Petrie, that the latest occupant \"was the same king\" who built it.\n\nYet the most precise puzzle is the one the builders wrote in stone without meaning to. Menkaure's pyramid is the one most out of line. Petrie measured its north side at 16 minutes 48 seconds of arc off true north, and about 14 minutes averaged over the casing, roughly a quarter of a degree. That is about four times the error of Khufu's, which Petrie put at 3 minutes 43 seconds. The archaeoastronomers Erin Nell and Clive Ruggles, resurveying the plateau in 2013, give Petrie's mean as plus 14.1 arcminutes, and their own course measurements range from about 12 to 32 minutes on different sides. The sign matters most. Khufu's and Khafre's pyramids, and Snefru's Red Pyramid at Dahshur, are all turned slightly anticlockwise. Menkaure's is turned clockwise.\n\nA quarter of a degree is nothing to the eye. Standing at the foot of the pyramid, no one could see it. But the earlier builders had held their error to a fraction of that, all leaning the same way, as though following one method faithfully from one reign to the next. Here the method seems to have changed, or failed, or been handed to other hands.\n\nThe obvious explanation sits in the rough granite. A king died early, his builders hurried, and the care that had gone into finding north slackened along with the care that had gone into dressing the stone. It may be the whole story. But a crew that could still cut joint faces with a polished edge line was not careless, and a change in direction is not the same thing as a loss of precision.\n\nSo the smallest pyramid keeps its questions closest. Its entrance fooled Vyse, its coffin lies under the sea, and its king, if the bones are his, was found scattered on a floor. Did the men who set out this last great pyramid at Giza simply lose the thread of a technique their fathers had mastered, or did they reach for north in a different way, by a different sky, from a knowledge that was already beginning to slip out of reach?","qs":["Menkaure's pyramid is turned the other way from Khufu's. A different crew, a different method, or a hurry?","Why build the rough granite first and dress it later?","What happens to a pyramid when its king dies early?"],"gal":[{"src":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Pyramid_of_Menkaure%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2005.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail_unscaled","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cairo,_Gizeh,_Pyramid_of_Menkaure,_Egypt,_Oct_2005.jpg","title":"Cairo, Gizeh, Pyramid of Menkaure, Egypt, Oct 2005.jpg","lic":"CC BY-SA 2.5","licurl":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5","by":"Unknown","cap":"","alt":"Cairo, Gizeh, Pyramid of Menkaure, Egypt, Oct"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/1280px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg","title":"All Gizah Pyramids.jpg","lic":"CC BY-SA 2.0","licurl":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0","by":"Ricardo Liberato","cap":"All Giza Pyramids in one shot."},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Giza_Plateau_-_Pyramid_of_Menkaure.JPG/1280px-Giza_Plateau_-_Pyramid_of_Menkaure.JPG?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Giza_Plateau_-_Pyramid_of_Menkaure.JPG","title":"Giza Plateau - Pyramid of Menkaure.JPG","lic":"CC BY-SA 4.0","licurl":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","by":"Daniel Mayer","cap":"Giza Plateau - Pyramid of Menkaure"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Gizeh_Mykerinos_02.JPG/1280px-Gizeh_Mykerinos_02.JPG?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gizeh_Mykerinos_02.JPG","title":"Gizeh Mykerinos 02.JPG","lic":"Public domain","licurl":"","by":"Unknown","cap":"","alt":"Pyramid of Menkaure (G3): Gizeh Mykerinos 02"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Menkaure%27s_pyramid%2C_unfinished_stones.jpg/1280px-Menkaure%27s_pyramid%2C_unfinished_stones.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Menkaure%27s_pyramid,_unfinished_stones.jpg","title":"Menkaure's pyramid, unfinished stones.jpg","lic":"Public domain","licurl":"","by":"WLU (t) (c) Wikipedia's rules:simple/complex","cap":"Unfinished stones at the base of the third pyramid of Menkaure."}]},"img":null,"md":null,"hh":[{"v":"220","u":"t","h":"Some local-stone blocks in its mortuary temple weighed as much as 220 tons, by Reisner's estimate","s":[6]},{"v":"105.390","u":"m","h":"Base side E","s":[7]},{"v":"105.608","u":"m","h":"Base side S","s":[7]},{"v":"105.509","u":"m","h":"Base side W","s":[7]}],"hs":{"6":["Wikipedia: Pyramid of Menkaure (and sources cited there)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramid_of_Menkaure"],"7":["Petrie 1883, Ch.10","http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/petrie/c10.html"]},"lh":{"s":"img/h/GIZ-G3.webp","w":1280,"h":853,"o":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Cairo%2C_Gizeh%2C_Pyramid_of_Menkaure%2C_Egypt%2C_Oct_2005.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail_unscaled"}}