{"it":{"id":"TIW-AKA","kind":"site","sub":"South America","name":"Tiwanaku core (Akapana, Kalasasaya, Gateway of the Sun)","place":"Bolivia","lat":-16.555,"lon":-68.673,"date":"Peak AD 500-1000","mat":"Sandstone, andesite","nfacts":42,"tags":["Andes","Astronomy"],"sum":"The Gate of the Sun at Tiwanaku, in Bolivia, was cut from a single slab of andesite, now broken into two pieces, to form a doorway with niches on either side. Above the opening, a frieze shows a central figure on a stepped platform, wearing a large head-dress and holding a staff in each hand, flanked by rows of bird-like human figures, with a row of human faces below.\n\nThe gate stands inside the Kalasasaya, a rectangular open temple of 128 by 126 metres, entered by a flight of seven steps in the centre of its eastern wall. UNESCO's advisory body notes that because of its orientation the Kalasasaya is believed to have been used as an observatory. Beside it rises the Akapana, a pyramid with a base of 194 by 194.4 metres, originally of seven platforms rising to over 18 metres.\n\nThe same evaluation says the ensemble on the gate has been interpreted as an agricultural calendar. That is a reading, not a translation; Tiwanaku left no script. The engineer Arthur Posnansky went further. In the third volume of Tihuanacu, the Cradle of American Man, published in 1957, he called the gate a gigantic unfinished block from a monumental calendar wall, and wrote that the city was wrecked by a cosmic cataclysm, then drowned when an eruption of the volcano Kjapphia, about 60 km to the north, made Lake Titicaca overflow, perhaps in a few hours.\n\nThe site has been studied from the 16th century, and modern study began in the early 19th century, but for a long time the effort went into removing works of art, not conserving them. Systematic excavation began only in 1957. The Kalasasaya has since been totally restored. UNESCO places the city's peak between 500 and 900 AD.\n\nIf the frieze is a calendar, what was it counting, and who could read it?","why":"A carved one-piece gateway in a restored temple, read as a calendar but never deciphered.","src":[259],"nsrc":79,"yt":"Calendar, god, or king: what do you read in it?","rel":["TIW-PUM"],"hook":"Tiwanaku's Gate of the Sun was cut from one slab of andesite, now broken in two."},"S":{"259":["Wikipedia: Tiwanaku","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwanaku"]},"rec":{"id":"TIW-AKA","alias":[],"ms":[{"f":"Tiwanaku","a":"oldest radiocarbon date (Ponce)","v":"1580 BC","u":"","o":"Beginning in the 1970s, Carlos Ponce Sanginés proposed the site was first occupied around 1580 BC, REF10 the site's oldest radiocarbon date.","unc":"","by":"per cited source","yr":"","m":"documentary: auto-extracted sentence","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary)","t":"INTERPRETATION","n":"W8 review: INTERPRETATION of single C14","id":"M2464"},{"f":"Tiwanaku","a":"founding (Bayesian model)","v":"AD 110 (50–170, 68%)","u":"","o":"REF11 REF12 REF13 More recently, a statistical assessment of reliable radiocarbon dates estimates that the site was founded around AD 110 (50–170, 68% probability), REF14 a date supported by the lack of ceramic styles from earlier periods.","unc":"","by":"per cited source","yr":"","m":"documentary: auto-extracted sentence","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary)","t":"INTERPRETATION","n":"W8 review: INTERPRETATION from modelled C14 (Marsh)","id":"M2465"},{"f":"a half Andean Cross -shaped structure that is","a":"width","v":"257","u":"m","o":"The Akapana is a \"half Andean Cross\"-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2466"},{"f":"Cross -shaped structure that is 257 m wide","a":"width","v":"197","u":"m","o":"The Akapana is a \"half Andean Cross\"-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2467"},{"f":"wide 197 m broad at its maximum and","a":"height","v":"16.5","u":"m","o":"The Akapana is a \"half Andean Cross\"-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2468"},{"f":"It is","a":"width","v":"167.36","u":"m","o":"It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2469"},{"f":"36 m wide along its north-south axis and","a":"width","v":"116.7","u":"m","o":"It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2470"},{"f":"m broad along its east-west axis and is","a":"height","v":"5","u":"m","o":"It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2471"},{"f":"The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than","a":"length","v":"300","u":"feet","o":"The Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2474"},{"f":"Stele ever found in the Andean world 7","a":"height","v":"3","u":"m","o":"It is the largest Stele ever found in the Andean world (7,3 m tall).]]","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); unit/attribute classified by keyword - check context in value_original","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2475"},{"f":"These structures spanned over","a":"area","v":"411","u":"ha","o":"These structures spanned over 411 ha, and included a stone temple covering 17 ha and about one hundred circular or rectangular structures of vast dimensions, which were possibly domestic units, as well as canal and road infrastructure.","unc":"","by":"per cited source (see citation)","yr":"","m":"documentary: verbatim sentence auto-extracted from Wikipedia revision","c":"no inline ref in article","pg":"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiwanaku&oldid=1382396183","b":"S","bb":"auto-extracted, Wikipedia rev 1382396183 (tertiary); 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Manzanilla 1992 (via PMC) 203 m: lengths disagree 182-203 m","id":"M2583"},{"f":"Akapana","a":"base dimensions","v":"194 x 194.4","u":"m","o":"194 x 194.4 m","unc":"","by":"UNESCO","yr":"2000","m":"nomination summary","c":"UNESCO 153775","pg":"","url":"https://whc.unesco.org/document/153775","b":"S","bb":"one secondary source (Wikipedia) naming the primary citation","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2584"},{"f":"Akapana","a":"base dimensions","v":"197 x 203","u":"m","o":"197 x 203 m","unc":"","by":"Manzanilla 1992 (via Vranich et al. 2023, PLoS ONE)","yr":"1992","m":"excavation survey","c":"PMC10664893 Fig 3 citing [44:22]","pg":"","url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10664893/","b":"S","bb":"one secondary source (Wikipedia) naming the primary citation","t":"MEASUREMENT","n":"","id":"M2585"},{"f":"Akapana","a":"height","v":"18","u":"m","o":"18 m","unc":"","by":"Vranich; UNESCO","yr":"2001","m":"survey summary","c":"Vranich 2001; UNESCO 153775 (\"over 18 m\")","pg":"","url":"https://doi.org/10.18800/boletindearqueologiapucp.200101.011 ; 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offering postdates construction","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/636.html","n":""},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"B-488","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  and ash","v":"2400 ± 200 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; Level 7 (-255cm), layer 6, square F-14,","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/122-b-488.html","n":"ref: - Oeschger H., Riesen T., 1965, Bern Radiocarbon Dates IV, Radiocarbon, vol. 1, pp. 1-9 : 7;       Ravines R., 1982, Panorama de la arqueologia andina, Institute de Estudios Peruanos, Lima: 224,7"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"B-489","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  and ash","v":"2530 ± 200 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; Level 7 (-270cm), layer 6, square E-14,","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/123-b-489.html","n":"ref: - Oeschger H., Riesen T., 1965, Bern Radiocarbon Dates IV, Radiocarbon, vol. 1, pp. 1-9 ,7"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"B-490","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  and ash","v":"2100 ± 200 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; Level 6, layer 4, square F-15,; B/4 (by H. Muller-Beck):samples (B-488, -489, -490) date levels with ware older than ?classical Tiahuanaco. All dates are in proper stratigraphic ?sequence, even B-488 and B-489, which are only 15 cm apart. The ?dates 2500 to 2400 BP seem probable for the material of the ?so-called Epoch I of the site, likewise 2100 BP for Epoch II (cf ?B/4).","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/124-b-490.html","n":"ref: - Oeschger H., Riesen T., 1965, Bern Radiocarbon Dates IV, Radiocarbon, vol. 1,7"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Hv-17","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"240 ± 80 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; From 50  cm depth, from the ceremonial platform of Kalasasaya; Sample was later proved not to belong to the culture layer.In Hv/1 dates: Hv-17, Hv-18, Hv-19 reported as Kalasya (temple ?field Kalasya, Tiahuanaku).","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/1526-hv-17.html","n":"ref: - Wendt I., Schneekloth H., Budde E., 1962, Hannover Radiocarbon Measurements I, Radiocarbon, vol. 4, pp. 100-108,106"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Hv-18","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"1630 ± 130 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; From 175 cm depth, from the ceremonial platform of Kalasasaya; Date is reasonable (cf Hv/1).","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/1527-hv-18.html","n":"ref: - Wendt I., Schneekloth H., Budde E., 1962, Hannover Radiocarbon Measurements I, Radiocarbon, vol. 4, pp. 100-108,106"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Hv-19","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"1645 ± 80 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; From 180 cm depth, from the ceremonial platform of Kalasasaya; Date is reasonable (cf Hv/1).","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/1528-hv-19.html","n":"ref: - Wendt I., Schneekloth H., Budde E., 1962, Hannover Radiocarbon Measurements I, Radiocarbon, vol. 4, pp. 100-108,107"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"INAH-972","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  carbonized wood","v":"1120 ± 140 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Akapana; excavation; Complex 11, from NW corner of a sacrifice (bones of the camelids, metal artifacts, pottery, carbonized wood, tropical fruits)","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/1763-inah-972.html","n":"ref: - Manzanilla L., 1992, Akapana. Una piramide en el centro del mundo, Universidad Nacional Autdnoma de Mexico, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Mexico D. F.,107"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-119","m":"14C","mat":"bone  slightly charred","v":"1460 ± 200 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Level 8 (2.30 to 2.85 m), 5cm of this bone was under apparently permanent ground water; Excavation continued below it for only 10cm without reaching ?sterile soil (cf P/3). In RAVIN82 this part of the site is ?reported as \"between Acapana-Putuni\".","link":"human/animal bone from the monument area: dates death of individual/use phase, not stone cutting","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2107-p-119.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-120","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"1702 ± 103 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Level 9 (2.00 to 2.25 m); Probably still within the range of Classic Tiahuanaco (cf P/3). ?In RAVIN82 this part of the site is reported as Kantatayita.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2108-p-120.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-120A","m":"14C","mat":"bone  slightly charred","v":"1226 ± 100 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Levels 8, 9 and 10 (1.75 to 2.50 m); Level 10 appears to be as early as Classic Tiahuanaco style ?occurs (cf P/3). In RAVIN82 this part of the site is reported as ?Kantatayita.","link":"human/animal bone from the monument area: dates death of individual/use phase, not stone cutting","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2110-p-120a.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-121","m":"14C","mat":"bone  slightly charred, animal","v":"1423 ± 175 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Levels 6 and 7 (1.25 to 1.75 m); Two sherds of Classic Tiahuanaco style occured in these levels. ?Later levels contained no surely Classic sherds and did not ?produce enough material for analysis (cf P/3). In RAVIN82 this ?part of the site is reported as Kantatayita.","link":"human/animal bone from the monument area: dates death of individual/use phase, not stone cutting","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2111-p-121.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-123","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  damp","v":"1817 ± 103 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Level 15 (3.50 to 3.75 m), marked by charcoal concentration and Early Tiahuanaco material; Excavation continued to 4.75 m, with no pottery below 4 m (cf ?P/3). In RAVIN82 this part of the site is reported as ?Kantatayita.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2114-p-123.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-146","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"949 ± 98 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; From level 1 (0 to 0.75 m) to level of stone pathway; A mixed surface level, with Classic, Decadent, and later pottery ?(cf P/3). In RAVIN82 this part of the site is reported as ?\"between Acapana-Putuni\".","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2125-p-146.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-147","m":"14C","mat":"bone  wet, sligthy charred","v":"1576 ± 104 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Levels 6 and 7 (1.80 to 2.30 m), nearing groundwater level; Early Tiahuanaco materials (cf P/3). In RAVIN82 this part of the ?site is  reported as \"between Acapana-Putuni\".","link":"human/animal bone from the monument area: dates death of individual/use phase, not stone cutting","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2126-p-147.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-149","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"1707 ± 93 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Level 12 (2.75 to 3.00 m); Should fall in later part of Early Tiahuanaco (cf P/3). In ?RAVIN82 this part of the site is reported as Kantatayita.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2127-p-149.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-150","m":"14C","mat":"bone  animal","v":"1692 ± 104 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco); excavation; Level 14 (3.25 to 3.50 m); Contains Early Tiahuanaco material (cf P/3). In RAVIN82 this part ?of the site is reported as Kantatayita.","link":"human/animal bone from the monument area: dates death of individual/use phase, not stone cutting","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2128-p-150.html","n":"ref: - Ralph E. K., 1959, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates III, American Journal of Science Radiocarbon Supplement, vol. 1, pp. 45-58, New Haven,55"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-531","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  and ash","v":"295 ± 192 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; S part of Pit G-15, Layer 3, consisting of pale reddish-brown clay, 85 to 100 cm deep; Samples come from excavations 1957-58 (Centro de Invest. ?Arqueologicas en Tiwanaku) directed by C. Ponce Sangines (cf ?P/6).","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2177-p-531.html","n":"ref: - Stuckenrath R. Jr., 1963, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates VI, Radiocarbon, vol. 5, pp. 82-103,95"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-532","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  and dirt","v":"1653 ± 61 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; Pit E-17, 364 cm deep","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2178-p-532.html","n":"ref: - Stuckenrath R. Jr., 1963, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates VI, Radiocarbon, vol. 5, pp. 82-103,95"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-533","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal","v":"778 ± 133 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; Pit F-8, over paved floor of house, 110 to 135 cm deep","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2179-p-533.html","n":"ref: - Stuckenrath R. Jr., 1963, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates VI, Radiocarbon, vol. 5, pp. 82-103,95"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"P-534","m":"14C","mat":"charcoal  and dirt","v":"1866 ± 62 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Kalasasaya; excavation; Pit I-17, 215 to 217 cm deep","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2180-p-534.html","n":"ref: - Stuckenrath R. Jr., 1963, University of Pennsylvania Radiocarbon Dates VI, Radiocarbon, vol. 5, pp. 82-103,95"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2276","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1070 ± 60 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 960Ä8560, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2530-smu-2276.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2277","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1130 ± 60 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 900Ä8570, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2531-smu-2277.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2289","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1185 ± 60 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 840Ä8580, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2532-smu-2289.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2290","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1120 ± 70 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 910Ä8585, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2533-smu-2290.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2330","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1080 ± 210 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 950Ä85110, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2534-smu-2330.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2367","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1150 ± 80 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 880Ä8580, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2535-smu-2367.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2465","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1110 ± 50 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 930Ä8560, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2536-smu-2465.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2466","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1170 ± 60 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 860Ä8580, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2537-smu-2466.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2467","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1130 ± 60 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 900Ä8570, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2538-smu-2467.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2468","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1390 ± 50 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 640Ä8535, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2539-smu-2468.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2469","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1190 ± 100 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 830Ä85115, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2540-smu-2469.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-2472","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1200 ± 115 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 830Ä85130, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2541-smu-2472.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"SMU-5639","m":"14C","mat":"not stated","v":"1170 ± 60 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku; Calibrated date: 860Ä8580, Dates are corrected and calibrated acording to the Stuiver and Pearson (1993) calibration curve.","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/2545-smu-5639.html","n":"ref: // Jquery encapsulation\n(function ($) {\n\n    $(document).ready(function () {\n        printnow = confirm('Print Page');\n        if (printnow) window.print();\n    });\n\n})(jQuery);"},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Wk-49169","m":"14C","mat":"tooth","v":"1186 ± 22 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Akapana; Sample TW004","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/5072-wk-49169.html","n":"ref: "},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Wk-49170","m":"14C","mat":"tooth","v":"1183 ± 21 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Akapana; Sample TW008","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/5073-wk-49170.html","n":"ref: "},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Wk-49173","m":"14C","mat":"tooth","v":"1158 ± 20 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Monolito Descabezado; Sample TW056","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/5079-wk-49173.html","n":"ref: "},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Wk-49174","m":"14C","mat":"tooth","v":"1109 ± 20 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Akapana; Sample TW060","link":"material from the sub-sector named in Sitename; association with construction not stated in record","weak":"organic sample dates use/occupation; no 14C method dates stone working; association with construction is contextual only","b":"S","url":"https://andesc14.pl/en/database-en/5082-wk-49174.html","n":"ref: "},{"k":"Lab date","lab":"Poz-123576","m":"14C","mat":"bone","v":"993 ± 27 BP","cal":"not calibrated in source (andesc14 lists conventional age BP)","ctx":"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Akapana; 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Williams, Golitko & Lémuz 2013","u":"https://www.academia.edu/2970308/Building_Taypikala_Telluric_Transformations_in_the_Lithic_Production_of_Tiwanaku"},{"id":null,"t":"Lechtman 2005","u":"https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-10432005000200002"},{"id":null,"t":"Field Museum Andean volcanics project","u":"https://www.fieldmuseum.org/project-narrative/science/andean-fine-grained-volcanics"},{"id":null,"t":"Benítez et al. [unverified]","u":"[unverified]"},{"id":"S0641","t":"Benítez 2013 (in Vranich & Stanish eds., Visions of Tiwanaku)","u":"https://escholarship.org/uc/item/72m4x2h9"},{"id":null,"t":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10664893/ ; https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/arqueologia/tiahuanaco/posnansky4.htm","u":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10664893/ ; https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/arqueologia/tiahuanaco/posnansky4.htm"},{"id":"W16S11","t":"Wikipedia Fingerprints of the Gods","u":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fingerprints_of_the_Gods&oldid=1360738621"},{"id":"W16S06","t":"Wikipedia David Hatcher Childress","u":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Hatcher_Childress&oldid=1379532385"},{"id":"W17S17","t":"von Daniken, Chariots of the Gods? English pb (Internet Archive OCR full text; saved prim/chariots_ia.txt)","u":"https://archive.org/download/chariots_of_the_gods/chariots_of_the_gods1_djvu.txt"},{"id":"W17S18","t":"Hancock, Fingerprints of the Gods (Internet Archive OCR full text; saved prim/fp.txt)","u":"https://archive.org/download/hancock-graham-fingerprints-of-the-gods/Hancock%20Graham%20-%20Fingerprints%20of%20the%20Gods_djvu.txt"},{"id":"S0620","t":"Wikipedia: Tiwanaku","u":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwanaku"},{"id":"VTIW-AKA-80","t":"Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture - UNESCO World Heritage Centre","u":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/567/"},{"id":"VTIW-AKA-81","t":"Posnansky, Tihuanacu: la cuna del hombre americano (Internet Archive)","u":"https://archive.org/details/posnansky-tihuanacu"},{"id":null,"t":"Vranich, A. et al., Reconstructing ancient architecture at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the potential and promise of 3D printing, Heritage Science, 2018","u":"https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-018-0231-0"}],"qs":["The gate was moved and broken before 1957. Can we know where it first stood?","The Kalasasaya is totally restored. How far should visitors trust what they see?","Is the frieze a calendar, a portrait of a god, or both?"],"gal":[{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PUERTA_DEL_SOL_TIWANAKU.jpg/1280px-PUERTA_DEL_SOL_TIWANAKU.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PUERTA_DEL_SOL_TIWANAKU.jpg","title":"PUERTA DEL SOL TIWANAKU.jpg","lic":"CC BY-SA 4.0","licurl":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","by":"CLAUDIOLD","cap":"Sitio arqueológico Ruinas de Tiahuanacu"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Monolito_Fraile_%28Tiwanaku%2C_Bolivia%29_%2836936733575%29.jpg/1280px-Monolito_Fraile_%28Tiwanaku%2C_Bolivia%29_%2836936733575%29.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monolito_Fraile_(Tiwanaku,_Bolivia)_(36936733575).jpg","title":"Monolito Fraile (Tiwanaku, Bolivia) (36936733575).jpg","lic":"CC BY 2.0","licurl":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0","by":"Sasha India","cap":"Monolito Fraile (Tiwanaku, Bolivia)"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Posnansky_Fig_10.png/1280px-Posnansky_Fig_10.png?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Posnansky_Fig_10.png","title":"Posnansky Fig 10.png","lic":"Public domain","licurl":"","by":"Arthur Posnansky","cap":"Figura 10 del libro: Guía general ilustrada para la investigación de los monumentos prehistóricos de Tihuanacu é islas del Sol y la Luna (Titicaca y Koaty) con ","alt":"Figura 10 del libro: Guía general ilustrada para la investigación de los monumentos prehistóricos de Tihuanacu é islas del Sol y la Luna (Titicaca y Koaty) con"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Posnansky_Fig_11.png/1280px-Posnansky_Fig_11.png?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Posnansky_Fig_11.png","title":"Posnansky Fig 11.png","lic":"Public domain","licurl":"","by":"Arthur Posnansky","cap":"Figura 11 del libro: Guía general ilustrada para la investigación de los monumentos prehistóricos de Tihuanacu é islas del Sol y la Luna (Titicaca y Koaty) con ","alt":"Figura 11 del libro: Guía general ilustrada para la investigación de los monumentos prehistóricos de Tihuanacu é islas del Sol y la Luna (Titicaca y Koaty) con"},{"src":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Posnansky_Fig_13.png/1280px-Posnansky_Fig_13.png?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail","page":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Posnansky_Fig_13.png","title":"Posnansky Fig 13.png","lic":"Public domain","licurl":"","by":"Arthur Posnansky","cap":"Figura 13 del libro: Guía general ilustrada para la investigación de los monumentos prehistóricos de Tihuanacu é islas del Sol y la Luna (Titicaca y Koaty) con ","alt":"Figura 13 del libro: Guía general ilustrada para la investigación de los monumentos prehistóricos de Tihuanacu é islas del Sol y la Luna (Titicaca y Koaty) con"}],"sum":"# Tiwanaku: The Gate That Kept Moving\n\nIn 1851 a folio book on the antiquities of Peru, Antigüedades peruanas, chose a single image for its frontispiece: an engraving of a stone doorway from the high plain south of Lake Titicaca. Europeans had only recently come across it. The great slab was lying on its side, split by a large crack, in a field of ruins at about 3,850 metres above sea level. It had no wall around it and no building behind it. It was a door that opened onto nothing, and it has been asking to be read ever since.\n\nThat doorway is the Gate of the Sun at Tiwanaku, in today's Bolivia. It was cut from one block of andesite, a hard grey volcanic stone, and it stands about 3 metres high and 4 metres wide. The official site puts its weight at more than 10 tonnes; the archaeologist Alexei Vranich estimates about nine. A doorway is carved through the middle, with niches cut into the face on either side. Today the slab is broken into two pieces, and it stands upright again.\n\n## The carving above the door\n\nThe upper band of the gate holds the most famous carving in the southern Andes. At its centre a figure stands on a stepped platform, wearing a large head-dress and holding a staff in each hand. Twenty-four straight rays spread from its head. Some read them as the rays of the Sun, though other readings are possible, and the object in its left hand is a stylised spear-thrower. The official site names the figure Viracocha, the staff god. Others have suggested Thunupa, the Aymara god of weather, or a human ritual specialist dressed for the part.\n\nRunning toward the figure from both sides are 48 smaller figures, often called attendants: 32 with human heads and 16 with the heads of birds. The cutting is not all of one moment. The figures at the outer edges lack the sharp lines of the central section and appear to have been added later, so the original design had 30 attendants and grew. Below them runs a band of human faces. The official site says that this lowest row shows suns that together form a solar calendar.\n\n## The temple, the pyramid and the city\n\nThe gate now stands inside the Kalasasaya, a rectangular open temple of about 128 by 126 metres, entered by a flight of seven steps set in the centre of its eastern wall. It also holds two carved monoliths, the Ponce and the Fraile. UNESCO's evaluation notes that, because of its orientation, the Kalasasaya is believed to have served as an observatory, and the official site calls it an astronomical temple aligned with the Earth's movement around the Sun.\n\nSouth of it rises the Akapana, which UNESCO calls the most imposing monument at Tiwanaku. It was a pyramid of seven stacked platforms with stone retaining walls, faced in sandstone and andesite, rising to more than 18 metres and topped by a temple. On the summit the official site describes a sunken patio in the shape of the chakana, the stepped Andean cross. Black stone statues of puma-men, the Chachapumas, guarded its western entrance, one of them holding a trophy head. Only the lowest platform and part of one middle wall survive intact, which is why the figures disagree: UNESCO gives a base of 194 by 194.4 metres, while an earlier excavation gave 197 by 203 metres and a height of 16.5 metres. On a ruined and partly rebuilt mound, it matters where you hold the tape.\n\nClose by lies a small sunken temple with 48 red sandstone pillars and many carved stone heads set into its walls. Around all of this stood a city. Most of it was built of adobe and now lies beneath the modern town, but the stone core survives in protected zones.\n\n## When it was built\n\nUNESCO describes Tiwanaku growing from a small settlement into a planned city between AD 400 and 900, with its peak from 500 to 900. In 2023 a study in PLOS ONE modelled 102 radiocarbon dates, 45 of them new, to build a finer timeline. It places the first settlers and the first monuments, the Kalasasaya and the Sunken Temple among them, in the late second century AD. By about 600 Tiwanaku had become the main destination for migrants in the region. The Akapana and the neighbouring platform of Pumapunku came mostly in the 600s, the Akapana begun with reused stone around 630. Monument building stopped around 720. People stopped living there permanently around 1010, in what the study proposes was a rapid, city-wide collapse that came well before the region grew drier. Drought, they argue, did not end Tiwanaku.\n\n## The ruin that was rebuilt\n\nHere the story turns from the builders to everyone who came after them. For centuries the effort at Tiwanaku went into removing works of art, not conserving them. During the wars of independence from Spain, the Gate of the Sun was set upright again to mark a new order. In the mid-20th century came a campaign to make the ruins rival Machu Picchu and Teotihuacan. Systematic excavation began only in 1957, and the Kalasasaya has since been totally restored.\n\nVranich and his colleagues describe \"heavy-handed restorations\" that left the site in an \"over-reconstructed state.\" Whole sections were taken down and reset to look more monumental, in step with a national story of an empire to match the Inca. The gate itself now stands where it was found, but the scholarly view is that this was not where it first stood, and nobody knows where that was. Each age has wanted something from these stones: a symbol of independence, a rival to Peru's famous ruins, a proof of some favoured past.\n\nThe early interpreters wanted the most. The engineer Arthur Posnansky and the writer Edmund Kiss each read the gate through theories of early contact with \"Nordic Aryans,\" ideas now classed as pseudoarchaeology. In the third volume of his Tihuanacu, the Cradle of American Man, published in 1957, Posnansky called the gate a gigantic unfinished block from a monumental calendar wall. He wrote that the city was wrecked by a cosmic cataclysm, then drowned when an eruption of the volcano Kjapphia, about 60 km to the north, made Lake Titicaca overflow, perhaps in a few hours. From the bearing of the Kalasasaya's walls he argued for an age near 15,000 BC. Radiocarbon dating rejects that figure and places the Kalasasaya in the first millennium AD.\n\n## What the stones still hold back\n\nStrip away the Aryans, the volcano and the restorers, and something stubborn remains. Tiwanaku left no script. Whatever its people knew about the sky, they kept it in stone and in pattern, and the readings we have, calendar, god or king, are interpretations, not translations. The ensemble on the gate has been read as an agricultural calendar. The rows of figures run in ordered numbers toward a single rayed being. The design on the gate grew, with new attendants added to the original 30, as if the count itself had to be updated.\n\nDeep under the Kalasasaya's floor, excavators recovered charcoal and ash from levels holding pottery older than classic Tiwanaku, with radiocarbon ages around 2,400 and 2,500 years before the present. Those dates measure people living there, not the cutting of stone, but they show how long this plain was a gathering place before the gate was carved.\n\nSo the questions recorded for this site are still standing. The gate was moved and broken before 1957. The Kalasasaya around it has been rebuilt. The frieze may be a calendar, a portrait of a god, or both. If a people without writing chose to put their most careful count of time on a single block of volcanic stone, what did they believe that count had to survive?"},"img":null,"md":null,"hh":[{"v":"26.95","u":"t","h":"Largest stone block in the Kalasasaya enclosure","s":[11]},{"v":"300 BC","h":"Older claimed dates are now rejected; consensus puts the site no earlier than 200–300 BC","s":[11]},{"v":"Peak AD 500-1000","h":"Dated to","s":[11]},{"v":"Sandstone, andesite","h":"Made of","s":[11]}],"hs":{"11":["Wikipedia: Tiwanaku (and sources cited there)","https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiwanaku"]},"lh":{"s":"img/h/TIW-AKA.webp","w":1280,"h":1024,"o":"https://thumb.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/PUERTA_DEL_SOL_TIWANAKU.jpg/1280px-PUERTA_DEL_SOL_TIWANAKU.jpg?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=imageinfo&utm_content=thumbnail"}}